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Osmanović Zajić, S. J., & Maksimović, Ž. J. (2022). Quasi-experimental research as an epistemological-methodological
Approach in education research, International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science, Engineering and Education
(IJCRSEE), 10(3), 177-183.
Introduction
Ontology, epistemology, and methodology are essential segments of every branch of science,
including pedagogy. Because of them, it is possible to determine the criteria for the systematization of
scientic knowledge and to review the state and scope of theory and pedagogy as a science. Linking
research and philosophical traditions helps researchers to clarify the theoretical frameworks of their
research. The research framework includes beliefs about the nature of reality (ontology), the theory of
knowledge that characterizes the research (epistemology), and how that knowledge can be acquired
(methodology). All these represent different directions that can be taken in research. The use of
quantication for the presentation of research results must be in compliance with positivist epistemology,
and for this reason, the epistemological-methodological peculiarities of education research must be
understood rst. Is this really the way it is in practice? The goal of this paper is to provide a brief overview
of research paradigms in education research and place quasi-experimental pedagogy among applied
pedagogical research used in the examination of educational practice.
The complexity of the educational process and the very nature of educational problems require
the integration and combination of qualitative and quantitative methodology in research. The basic
characteristics of these methodologies point to the need of conducting mixed methods research.
Quantitative methodology relies on large samples in order to analyze certain parts of the population.
On the other hand, qualitative methodology is based on small samples that are thoroughly described
and analyzed. Combining them ensures the analysis of individual parts of the population, but also
the understanding of their full complexity. Using the mixed method implies that the researcher is well
acquainted the basics of both qualitative and quantitative methodologies. Finally, the concept of quasi-
experimental pedagogy represents a set of logically related assumptions, concepts or propositions that
Quasi-Experimental Research as An Epistemological-Methodological Approach in
Education Research
Jelena S. Osmanović Zajić1* , Jelena Ž. Maksimović1
1University of Niš, Faculty of Philosophy, Serbia,
e-mail: jelena.osmanovic.zajic@lfak.ni.ac.rs, jelena.maksimovic@lfak.ni.ac.rs
Abstract: Pedagogy as a social-humanistic science that deals with upbringing and education expresses its complexity
through a plurality of ideas, understandings and opportunities for studying, learning and researching educational practice. The
methodology dealt with by experimental and quasi-experimental pedagogy is exact and serves to establish reliable data, i.e.,
it searches for facts and evidence that can replace research hypotheses. A synonym for quasi-experimental pedagogy is “new
pedagogy” because the evaluation of research quality in educational practice can be dened through the methodological basis of
research, originality, novelty and signicance. The question arises: how many quasi-experiments have been conducted so far that
researchers are not even aware of, that is, they have not called this type of research by its real name? The main goal of theoretical
research is to analyze the crucial differences between non-experimental, experimental and quasi-experimental research. From
the presented goal of the research arises the research task which is reected in seeking to afrm quasi-experimental research
in pedagogy with the aim of bringing closer to the scientic public the characteristics and advantages of quasi-experiments in
terms of streamlining implementation and practicality in the natural school environment. The paper uses the theoretical analysis
method with the content analysis technique. The authors presented conclusions about the importance of quasi-experimental
research as a special epistemological-methodological approach in determining the causality of educational phenomena.
Keywords: quasi-experimental pedagogy, causality, epistemological-methodological approaches, methodology of
pedagogy, research plurality.
Review article
Received: October, 21.2022.
Revised: December, 06.2022.
Accepted: December, 09.2022.
UDK:
37.012
10.23947/2334-8496-2022-10-3-177-183
© 2022 by the authors. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the
Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
*Corresponding author: jelena.osmanovic.zajic@lfak.ni.ac.rs
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Osmanović Zajić, S. J., & Maksimović, Ž. J. (2022). Quasi-experimental research as an epistemological-methodological
Approach in education research, International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science, Engineering and Education
(IJCRSEE), 10(3), 177-183.
guide research. Without determining the paradigm as the rst step, there is no basis for further choices in
terms of the methodology, methods, literature and research design itself. Certainly, there are problems in
pedagogy related to the methodology based on the positivist paradigm, as well as those related to the so-
called humanistic methodology. But what we can predict with great certainty is that pedagogy, or any other
social-humanistic science, will not develop within the framework of only one methodological approach.
In relation to that, the authors highlight that one can rely on the logical-methodological and, among other
things, the epistemological setting as the basic philosophical starting point of research, but also that one
can follow modern research trends and use a plurality of ideas when it comes to experimental and quasi-
experimental pedagogy.
Epistemological-Methodological Approaches in Education Research in the Context
of Quasi-Experimental Pedagogy
During the 1980s, many quantitatively and qualitatively oriented researchers claimed that their
approach was superior. Some of these researchers were “purists,” as they argued that the two approaches
cannot be used together due to differences in worldviews or philosophical orientations (Antwi and Hamza,
2015). Within the social and humanistic sciences, there is a need for a planned and systematized approach
to basic and principled epistemological questions. Epistemology and methodology go together – they are
intertwined concepts and are always in a dialectical unity, which leads to new knowledge in pedagogy. In
terms of their philosophical foundations, epistemology is closer to logic and gnoseology, while methodology
is focused on empiricism, i.e., “practical activity” (Sladoje Bošnjak, 2019; 2018a; 2018b).
Al-Ababneh (2020) gives the following denitions: 1. Epistemology is the theory of knowledge
embedded in the theoretical perspective, and therefore in the methodology; 2. Theoretical perspective
is the philosophical stance informing the methodology and thus giving a context for the process and
grounding its logic and criteria; 3. Methodology is the strategy, action plan, process or design that lies
behind the choice and use of certain methods and connects the choice and use of methods with the
desired outcomes; 4. Methods are dened as the techniques or procedures used to gather and analyze
data related to a research question or hypothesis.
Ontology refers to the nature of our beliefs about reality. Researchers have assumptions about it.
The ontological question that prompts the researcher to think about is what kinds of reality exist: a single,
veriable reality or a multiple social reality. In its origin, ontology refers to a branch of philosophy that deals
with articulating the nature and structure of the world. It species the form and nature of reality and what
can be known about it. There are two broadly contrasting positions - objectivism and constructionism.
Objectivism holds that there is an independent reality and constructionism assumes that reality is a
product of social processes (Antwi and Hamza, 2015).
Epistemology refers to a branch of philosophy that studies the nature of knowledge and the process
by which knowledge is acquired and conrmed. It represents a concern about the nature and form of
knowledge, how it can be acquired and how it can be communicated to others. Epistemological questions
lead the researcher to think about possibilities, objectivity, subjectivity, validity and generalization in
some researched studies. Adhering to an ontological belief system, we can certainly arrive at certain
epistemological assumptions. If it is assumed that there is a single veriable truth, we strive with our
beliefs to discover it and to learn “exactly how things are” and “how things really work”. On the other hand,
believing there is a socially constructed multiple reality leads the researcher to include other subjects and
understand phenomena from a wide variety of contexts. Epistemology represents a distinctive “worldview”
(Antwi and Hamza, 2015; Al-Ababneh, 2020).
Research methodology is a theoretically based approach to the study of data. Methodology can
also be dened as a method used in conducting research and it reects the question of how knowledge
can be acquired. The methodological aspect of research must be in compliance with ontological and
epistemological attitudes (Antwi and Hamza, 2015; Kamal, 2019). It refers to the study and critical analysis
of data acquisition techniques. Methodology is the strategy, action plan, process or design that informs
the choice of research methods. It guides the researcher in deciding which type of data and instruments
to use in a specic study, and which tools are most suitable for researching a particular phenomenon.
Finally, methods are specic means of collecting and analyzing data. Which methods will be used in a
study depends on its design and the researcher’s “theoretical” way of thinking. It should be noted that
the use of certain methods does not entail ontological and epistemological assumptions (Rehman and
Alharthi, 2016).
Ontology, epistemology and methodology are essential segments of every branch of science,
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Osmanović Zajić, S. J., & Maksimović, Ž. J. (2022). Quasi-experimental research as an epistemological-methodological
Approach in education research, International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science, Engineering and Education
(IJCRSEE), 10(3), 177-183.
including pedagogy. Because of them, it is possible to determine the criteria for the systematization of
scientic knowledge and to review the state and scope of theory and pedagogy as a science. Linking
research and philosophical traditions helps researchers to clarify the theoretical frameworks of their
research. The research framework includes beliefs about the nature of reality (ontology), the theory of
knowledge that characterizes the research (epistemology), and how that knowledge can be acquired
(methodology).
All of these are different research directions that can be taken in experimental and quasi-
experimental pedagogy research. This section provided a brief overview of research paradigms in
education research. The focus of the study are three main paradigms: positivist, interpretivist, and
critical theory with a brief review of the four components of each research paradigm – namely, ontology,
epistemology, methodology, and methods.
Position of Quasi-Experimental Pedagogy – A Paradigmatic Debate
The choice of the philosophical basis and perspective when researching a certain phenomenon
should be founded in the needs and requirements of the study, and it should not be insisted on only
one philosophical point of view while excluding all others (Rehman and Alharthi, 2016). On the other
hand, there are numerous paradigms that can guide us in the research process, thus relying on different
paradigmatic schemes in order to conceptualize and classify research.
Pedagogy research is generally classied into two broad categories: qualitative and quantitative
research. Each approach has its own methodology and terminology. Quantitative research uses
measurement, whereby data is tested to examine pre-set hypotheses. It is a type of research which
requires controlling variables. On the other hand, in qualitative research the focus is on research in the
natural environment. No hypotheses are set here, but this type of research is distinctive because it can
result in hypotheses and the creation of new theories. It is often thought that qualitative research is
the precursor to quantitative research (Preglej, 2014). The terms quantitative and qualitative research
generally mean more than different ways of gathering information and represent divergent assumptions
about the nature and purpose of research in pedagogy (Bryman, 1988; Gojkov, Krulj and Kundačina, 1999;
Guba and Lincoln, 1988; Halmi, 2005; Howe, 1988). Qualitative research describes events in their natural
environment. Instead of designing experiments and controlling variables articially, when conducting
qualitative research, researchers use anthropological and ethnographic methods to study respondents
(Lowhorn, 2007). Different research methods can be used in qualitative research. The qualitative method
with qualitative analysis is one of the studied reality properties. We distinguish the following research
methods within qualitative research: historical, comparative, genetic, functional method, structural method,
system analysis, monographic method, case study method, dialectical method.
According to the quantitative approach, social phenomena should be treated in the same way
natural phenomena are treated by scientists from the eld of natural sciences. Quantitative research is a
research methodology with a holistic approach that the researcher uses during the research process. The
quantitative method deals with the quantication and analysis of variables in order to arrive at research
results. It involves the use and analysis of numerical data to answer the following questions: who, how
much, what, where, when and how? Quantitative research explains the problem by presenting data with
numerical indicators, while the analysis and interpretation of research results is based on mathematical
methods, especially statistics.
Figure 1. Non-experimental versus experimental research
Once the decision to conduct a quantitative study is made, it must be designed. There are two
main types of quantitative research designs: experimental and non-experimental designs. Experimental
pedagogical research deals with cause-and-effect relationships (also known as causal links and
relationships) and strives determine the effects of pedagogical procedures in a systematic way (Knežević-
Florić and Ninković, 2012; Fajgelj, 2010). In experimental research, we manipulate variables in order to
examine the inuence of one variable on another, while in non-experimental research, variables are not
manipulated.
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Osmanović Zajić, S. J., & Maksimović, Ž. J. (2022). Quasi-experimental research as an epistemological-methodological
Approach in education research, International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science, Engineering and Education
(IJCRSEE), 10(3), 177-183.
Quasi-Experimental Research in the Context of Experimental Research
The main reason for the rise of experimental pedagogy should be sought in the development of
social and natural sciences, as well as in the circumstances of the 19th and the 20th century. Experimental
research rst emerged in natural sciences, and then spread to the eld of social-humanistic sciences.
Under the inuence of the positivist research paradigm, there was a tendency to separate from
deductivism and join natural sciences. The focus shifted from the eld of psychology to the issues dealt
with in pedagogy. Experimental pedagogy is empirical. The methodology dealt with in experimental
pedagogy is exact and it is used to determine denite data, i.e., it looks for facts and evidence that can
replace research hypotheses. A synonym for experimental pedagogy is “new pedagogy,” although the
term “scientic pedagogy” can also be found. In the rst half of the 19th century, pedagogy spread its
knowledge, developed the methodology of studying pedagogical problems and replaced theoretical and
deductive studies of pedagogical phenomena with experimental, i.e., empirical research. Historically, in the
period between 1880 and 1990, pedagogical laboratories that explored various pedagogical phenomena
(teaching, teaching methodology, opinion and memory, curricula and programs, school systems, etc.)
were opened (Nahod, 1999).
Experimental research is a systematic and scientic approach to research in which the researcher
manipulates one or more variables, and controls and measures any changes in other variables. The
goal of experimental research is predicting phenomena. In most cases, the experiment is designed in
such a way so that some types of causal relations can be explained. Experimental research describes
the process which the researcher undergoes to observe whether manipulating variables leads to certain
results, i.e., whether the manipulation directly causes a certain outcome.
When research is carried out, there is no criterion that will immediately show that a certain design is
better than the other, or that some experiment is more valuable than the other. Evaluating research quality
is done through the methodological basis of the research, originality, novelty, and signicance, and these
are the so-called generic research evaluation criteria. Originality implies that the research is based on new
data and on innovative approaches to researching complex pedagogical problems.
In the last few decades, a wider use of quasi-experimental research in social sciences has been
observed. This trend, partially derived due to the “credibility revolution” in social sciences, is notable
together with the increasing use of randomized controlled trials with the purpose of testing causal relations
and conclusions (Gopalan, Rosinger and Ahn, 2020). Quasi-experimental research design should be
brought as close as possible to the benets of real experimental designs in a natural school environment.
The main difference between experimental and quasi-experimental research lies in the distribution
of respondents into groups. In experimental research, distribution of respondents into groups is randomized
to reduce bias. In quasi-experiments, such a random distribution is not possible. The control group serves
as a comparison group. In order to retain the advantages of experimental research (environment control)
as much as possible, it is crucial to ensure that the experimental and comparison (control) groups are as
similar as possible. This is not easy to do because the number of variables that can affect outcomes is
considerable. Therefore, the best thing to do is to think carefully about the factors that may affect the results.
The control and experimental groups should be as similar as possible in the following sociodemographic
characteristics: socioeconomic status, gender, ethnicity, ability, etc. The researcher must try to collect
as much data as possible on as many variables as are believed to be relevant to the outcomes of the
quasi-experimental research. Statistical control of the effects of these variables can then be attempted.
It is obvious that from the point of view of establishing causality this is not an efcient method (Gopalan,
Rosinger and Ahn, 2020; Muijs, 2004; Levy and Ellis, 2011).
Everything mentioned above makes it clear that it is necessary to nd a group that matches the
experimental group, and this is not an easy task at all; lack of randomization may lead to research bias.
Quasi-experimental research designs have one obvious advantage over experimental designs, which is
that they are conducted in a natural setting. If we discover the effects of a program, we can be sure that
they occur in natural, not only laboratory, conditions. Such quasi-experimental research is suitable for
evaluating some new initiatives and programs in the educational process (Muijs, 2004).
Quasi-experimental research designs test causal hypotheses. In both experimental and quasi-
experimental research, a treatment, an intervention, or an experimental factor is used.
Groups of qualitative indicators of experimental and quasi-experimental research are as follows.
Literature review is the key element for the conceptual design of the research; It is important that the
review presents the existing information and grounded theory for the proposed research. Literature review
should reect recent and basic research studies in the eld. If there is no literature to support a particular
problem, the researcher should state this clearly. Regardless of whether the researcher is proposing
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Osmanović Zajić, S. J., & Maksimović, Ž. J. (2022). Quasi-experimental research as an epistemological-methodological
Approach in education research, International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science, Engineering and Education
(IJCRSEE), 10(3), 177-183.
an innovative approach for which there is little existing empirical evidence or interventions, literature
review should provide appropriate arguments for the importance of investigating a particular research
problem; Highlighting the importance of re-investigating a certain issue; Presenting arguments supporting
the intervention; Presenting sufcient arguments on why treatment is necessary for a certain group; Using
adequate procedures to ensure that groups are comparable under all conditions; The intervention is clearly
described; A faithfully described research procedure; A clearly described apparatus; Providing evidence
for the validity and reliability of the obtained measures; Effects of intervention measures are recorded
on time; The selected data analysis techniques correspond to the research questions and research
hypotheses; The variability of the sample should be represented by adequate statistical parameters.
Real experiments and quasi-experiments have different goals. Real experiments are conducted
in order to study a phenomenon, while quasi-experiments have a practical purpose. Quasi-experiments
are aimed at discovering causal links and relationships based on correlations between the phenomena
themselves. They are said to be “halfway between a passive observation and a true experiment” (Milas,
2005, p. 221).
To sum up, what guides researchers when choosing a research sample is debatable. If the
experimental method is used, the researcher must randomly select the research sample. If they use
the quasi-experimental method, they can use a deliberate and convenient sample. This can be done by
researchers, students, teachers, reective practitioners. From an epistemological and methodological
point of view, it should be pointed out that if the researcher uses the experimental method with a pre-
selected sample from the population, this is not a real experimental design, but a quasi-experimental
study. For example, if a teacher introduces a new method in their class, this is not the experimental
method, but the quasi-experimental method. In this sense, the aim is to establish the right terminology and
perform quasi-experimental research from the shadows of experimental research.
The Mixed Method Reconciling Paradigms Through Quasi-Experimental Research
The relationship between the theoretical and the empirical approach to the study of the phenomenon
or research problem is presented, together with the relationship between qualitative and quantitative
methods in pedagogical research. As both types of research are benecial (what can be learned by
one method cannot be learned by the other due to different philosophical starting points to which they
epistemologically belong), it cannot still be argued that one or the other perspective in research should
be strictly followed. The solution is found in triangulation, that is, a mixed methodology that manages to
reconcile these two paradigms through the methodological element of methods, techniques and research
instruments that can be combined in empirical studies.
The mixed method actually refers to methods of data collection, data analysis and interpretation
of evidence, that is, the analysis and interpretation of research results. The terms “mixing, mixed” are
essential because this is a key step in a certain phase of the research process. “Purposeful data integration
enables researchers to seek a more panoramic view of their research landscape, viewing phenomena
from different viewpoints and through diverse research lenses” (Shorthen and Smith, 2017, p. 74–75). For
example, in a randomized controlled trial, quantitative data can be collected to examine knowledge about
a problem, while qualitative data is used to analyze certain experiences. This point of view is characteristic
of both natural and social sciences. In experimental research, for example, the researcher may conduct an
interview with respondents to examine the desired phenomenon, but they may also use a questionnaire or
a rating scale to assess some characteristics of the investigated phenomenon. This is a typical example
of combining a qualitative and a quantitative method because the interview is an instrument that belongs
to qualitative research, while the assessment scale belongs the quantitative paradigmatic orientation.
The complexity of the educational process and the very nature of educational problems require
the integration and combination of qualitative and quantitative methodology in research. The basic
characteristics of these methodologies point to the need of using the mixed method. Quantitative
methodology relies on large samples to analyze certain parts of the population, while qualitative
methodology is based on small samples that are described and analyzed in a detailed manner. Combining
them ensures the analysis of individual parts of the population, but also the understanding of their full
complexity. Using the mixed method implies that the researcher is well acquainted with the basics of both
qualitative and quantitative methodologies (Denzin and Lincoln, 2000).
It is necessary to point out that even in the context of experimental and quasi-experimental
research, one should not stick to only one research tradition and that through the application of different
research methods it is possible to reconcile the irreconcilable.
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Osmanović Zajić, S. J., & Maksimović, Ž. J. (2022). Quasi-experimental research as an epistemological-methodological
Approach in education research, International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science, Engineering and Education
(IJCRSEE), 10(3), 177-183.
Concluding Remarks
In summary, each paradigm has its own advantages and disadvantages, that is, each paradigm
has specic features and a unique role in the process of researching upbringing and education, especially
in pedagogy. By using a multifaceted approach, not limiting ourselves to one paradigm, we can have a
holistic framework and approach in investigating our research question. It is rmly believed that connecting
paradigms in research ensures the quality, validity, reliability and relevance of the facts.
Furthermore, when the researcher is well acquainted with the philosophical, epistemological and
methodological postulates, and paradigmatic frameworks, they can use this knowledge to change their
views on the research methodology they are dealing with. For example, experimental research involves
studying the effect of a systematic manipulation of one or more variables on another variable. To conduct
a “true” experiment, researchers must select a randomized research sample. By random distribution,
each respondent has an equal chance of entering the research process. Sometimes, researchers cannot
randomly select respondents. Instead, the experimenter will often use already formed research groups,
such as a class community, and conduct the research in the classroom. In this case, the research is
described as quasi-experimental. In non-experimental quantitative research, the researcher identies
variables and may look for relationships between them but does not manipulate the variables. There is a
tendency to assert the function and importance of research not only among researchers, but also among
pedagogues, teachers, and students. It is important that researchers undertake the role of practitioner in
the research process. Researchers should see the research problem as an action by which the practice
is constantly changing and developing. As already mentioned, the realization of the research is described
from the point of view of the subject’s nature, research goal, sample, methods, techniques and instruments,
as well as data processing. Each study is conducted with the aim of understanding the research problem
better (Bandjur and Potkonjak, 1999; Hebib and Matović, 2012). The relevant data can be collected in
both qualitative and quantitative form or by constructively combining them.
It is important to point out to the scientic public that there are different types of quasi-experimental
and experimental research designs. But in order for them to be further afrmed in special segments,
it is necessary to dene quasi-experimental research and understand the crucial difference between
an experiment and a quasi-experiment. To achieve that goal, methodological, research and statistical
literacy is necessary, especially for teachers who tend to improve themselves and the educational system.
When the researcher is “qualied” in this domain, there is no doubt that they will conduct the research
appropriately and write a proper report on its implementation, as well as distribute it to the scientic public.
On the one hand, one of the goals of this paper was to gain a certain perspective of the research process,
and on the other hand, it was to encourage greater argumentation of the practical ndings of experimental
research and afrmation of quasi-experimental research in pedagogy.
Conict of interests
The authors declare no conict of interest.
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