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Introduction
Open Government Data (OGD) plays a vital role in the concept of open government. Its popularity
has increased signicantly in recent years and continues to grow, aligning with the ongoing trend of
establishing or enhancing the understanding of the current status, drawbacks, and advantages of OGD
initiatives (including specic components like the OGD portal or OGD platform) and their position relative
to others (Spalević, Veljković and Milić, 2023). The value generated through OGD extends across various
government functions, including decision support, transportation, public health, and law enforcement.
This value contributes to building citizens’ trust in the government, fostering greater transparency, and
yielding positive societal and governmental implications. Further harnessing of the potential of OGD can
be leveraged by articial intelligence (AI) techniques and algorithms, with purpose of extracting valuable
insights and patterns from vast amounts of open data, leading to enhanced decision-making processes
and improved service delivery (Zuiderwijk, Chen and Salem, 2021). Through AI, governments can
automate the analysis of open government datasets, identify trends, and gain a deeper understanding of
various socio-economic factors. This enables them to make data-driven policy decisions, address societal
challenges more effectively, and allocate resources efciently. Another advantage of using AI is handling
the huge amount of information on the approach of automatic processing and other services (Sträßer and
Stolicna, 2023).
AI also plays a signicant role in ensuring the accessibility and usability of open government
data. Moreover, AI-powered algorithms can assist in data quality assurance, anomaly detection, and data
privacy protection. By leveraging AI techniques, governments can identify potential biases, improve data
accuracy, and ensure the responsible and ethical use of open government data. The synergy between AI
and OGD holds immense potential for promoting transparency, citizen engagement, and evidence-based
governance. It empowers both governments and individuals to harness the transformative power of data,
fostering innovation, and driving social progress. Full exploitation of AI in this and other areas can be
achieved by striving towards education in AI, enabling consequently proper and adequate application of
Enhancing Legally-Based E-Government Services in Education Through
Articial Intelligence
Žaklina Spalević1* , Jelena Kaljević1 , Slaviša Vučetić2 , Petar Milić2
1Singidunum University, Belgrade, Serbia, e-mail: zspalevic@singidunum.ac.rs; jkaljevic@singidunum.ac.rs
2University of Priština – Kosovska Mitrovica, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Kosovska Mitrovica, Serbia,
e-mail: slavisa.vucetic@pr.ac.rs; petar.milic@pr.ac.rs
Abstract: Through the utilization of articial intelligence (AI), governments can automate the analysis of publicly available
government datasets. This process aids in the recognition of patterns and the development of a more profound comprehension
of various socio-economic factors and empowers governments to base their policy decisions on data, effectively tackling societal
issues, and optimizing the allocation of resources. In this paper we present AI’s application in the realm of e-government, with
particular emphasis on its potential inuence on the advancement of this eld through e-government services and their signicance
for a range of stakeholders. Moreover, we have conducted comprehensive review of existing literature on the subject and the
identication of avenues for enhancement along with consideration of legislation as a potent instrument to guide the progression
of AI within the sphere of e-government, thereby amplifying its transformative effect. We emphasize the importance of education
in area of AI in order to ensure it’s high quality implementation in this and other areas.
Keywords: articial intelligence, e-government, open data, transparency, improvement.
Review Article
Received: August 27, 2023.
Revised: October 25, 2023.
Accepted: November 01, 2023.
UDC:
004.891.2
004.788.5:351
10.23947/2334-8496-2023-11-3-511-518
© 2023 by the authors. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the
Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
*Corresponding author: zspalevic@singidunum.ac.rs
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Spalević, Ž. et al. (2023). Enhancing legally-based e-government services in education through articial intelligence,
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AI in order to fulll the set goals (Buiten, 2019).
To achieve effective implementation and successful integration of AI in the public sector,
comprehensive AI governance is essential (Etscheid, 2019). It entails developing robust plans for
implementation, engagement, and communication, while also addressing the technical aspects of AI
along-side governance, policy, and regulatory issues. For governments it is crucial to recognize that AI
and OGD should not only be approached from a technical perspective but also from a governance stand-
point (Kankanhalli, Charalabidis and Mellouli, 2019). By comprehensively addressing AI governance,
policy, and regulatory challenges, governments can formulate effective strategies for utilizing AI in the
public sector while safeguarding the interests of their citizens.
Research objective
In this paper, we examine the utilization of articial intelligence within the realm of e-government,
paying particular attention to its potential impact on advancing this domain. To accomplish this
objective, we initially center our discussion on e-government services and their signicance for a range
of stakeholders. Subsequently, we delve into the deployment of AI in the e-government domain by
conducting a comprehensive review of existing literature and pinpointing opportunities for enhancement.
An essential aspect that requires due consideration is the legal framework. Consequently, the paper
explores the strategic deployment of legislation as a powerful instrument to guide the evolution of AI in the
e-government sector, thereby augmenting its transformative inuence. Therefore, we here establish two
research questions which will be further researched throughout the paper:
RQ1: Is there any opportunities for enhancement of deployment of AI in the e-government domain?
RQ2: How legal frameworks are aligned with current development of e-government?
E-government services
With digital services, government worldwide can deliver information and services to their citizens
anytime, anywhere, and citizens can access to that information and services through any platform or
device. Here we can come to question what is the importance of е- services in open government? Open
government does not only mean the availability of government information on the internet, but also
the interaction between the government and citizens. That interaction is reected into the concepts of
openness, transparency and participation.
Figure 1. Vision of open government (Meijer, Curtin and Hillebrandt, 2012).
In open government, special emphasis is placed on the importance of the availability of open data
(OGD). Moreover, transparency of government reduces the information gaps between government and
the citizens (Kim and Lee, 2012). Transparency can be described as the active disclosure of information
by an organization with the intent of allowing external actors to monitor and assess the internal workings or
performance of that organization (Krah and Mertens, 2020). However, if information is not comprehensible
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Spalević, Ž. et al. (2023). Enhancing legally-based e-government services in education through articial intelligence,
International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science, Engineering and Education (IJCRSEE), 11(3), 511-518.
to the users, then published information about an organization does not contributes to the transparency.
Citizens are at the heart of open government, and their participation represents a fundamental
principle of the latter (Wirtz, Weyerer and Rosch, 2019). Citizen participation has always been considered
one of the key pillars of open government (Kempeneer and Wolswinker, 2023) and one of the main
objectives of open government. However, the possibility for citizens to express their opinions, as well as to
participate in the processes of government decision-making using digital services, implies the need for the
availability and accessibility of modern technologies to the whole society. This is especially pronounced
in developing countries, where the “digital divide” must rst be bridged (Milić, 2019). Bridging the digital
divide has implications in terms of fostering economic equality, educational potential, and earning potential
(Fong, 2009).
Over the past few years, e-government services implementation is rapidly growing worldwide. For
one to understand the idea of e-government services, must rst understand electronic services in general.
“Electronic service, refers to services offered over the information and communication technologies”
(AlBalushi, 2021). These services are becoming increasingly important with continuously developed
application in various domains (business, government, education and health) as these services provide
benets to all parties concerned from service providers, service users and the society. While developing
countries are implementing the concept of e-government for the rst time, developed countries are trying
to improve quality of already existing services, and the question that arises is how to do it? The answer to
this question is: quality of services can be improved only through understanding of the situation in some
country (Mukamurenzi, Gronlund and Islam, 2019).
“E-government services affect many stakeholders including citizens and enterprises, government
staffs, information technology developers and policy makers” (Fan and Jang, 2015). Each stakeholder
has different interests and goals and depending of how government services fulll those interests and
goals, stakeholders evaluate the quality of e-government services in that way. “As service providers want
to boost the efciency and quality to reach more users to utilize these services, a prime challenge in
developing these services with high quality to meet users’ expectation becomes a must” (AlBalushi, 2021).
The service provider offers various services to the end-users and they use it. However, the question is
what affects the maintenance of trust between service providers (in this case government) and end-
users? Quality which is reected in personalization, usability, performance, web design, security, user
involvement, satisfaction and loyalty is the answer. Quality requires constant work on it, because only
in that case quality of e-government services is at high level. Nevertheless, raising awareness about of
e-government services and their usage benets, as well as important of usage of OGD portal contributes
to the further exploitation and utilization of e-government services.
Public sector organizations have started making governmental data available on web portals, as
web services, so that the public have access to such ofcial datasets in one place (Weerakkody et al.,
2017). “A real benet of OGD is not simply that single databases can be used more widely; it is that these
data can also be leveraged, shared and combined with other data” (Huston, Edge and Bernier, 2019). In the
human and environmental health realms, for example, the ability to access and combine diverse data can
advance early signal detection, improve analysis and evaluation, inform program and policy development,
increase capacity for public participation, enable transparency and improve accountability. In order to
further advance the goals of open government it is important to make reection on the possibilities of
OGD usage and not simply view publishing OGD as an end point (Ruijer et al., 2020). It is expected that
OGD will be exploit to create various applications by end users and that these applications will be for the
benet to the whole society.
In many domains, OGD can be of benet, and examples of how OGD can be used already exist in
many applications. Keeping that in mind, utilization of OGD has emerged as a transformative force in the
eld of education (Chokki et al., 2022), fostering transparency, innovation, and informed decision-making.
In the context of education, OGD encompasses a wide range of information, from school performance
and enrollment statistics to curriculum materials and educational resources (Huss and Keudel, 2020).
One of the primary advantages of OGD in education is its potential to empower parents, educators,
policymakers, and researchers with insights to drive meaningful change. By providing access to data
on school performance, teacher qualications, and student outcomes, stakeholders can make informed
decisions to improve educational quality. Parents can better evaluate school options for their children,
and policymakers can identify areas in need of targeted interventions to enhance educational outcomes.
The collaborative potential of OGD is particularly evident in fostering partnerships between
governmental bodies, educational institutions, and civil society organizations. These partnerships can
leverage data to design evidence-based policies, monitor educational progress, and promote greater
accountability. For example, transparency in budget allocation and resource distribution can lead to more
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Spalević, Ž. et al. (2023). Enhancing legally-based e-government services in education through articial intelligence,
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equitable funding across schools, narrowing educational disparities (Yates et al, 2021).
Articial intelligence in e-government
On the global stage initial addressing of the matter of articial intelligence was done by the
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). In May 2019, the OECD adopted
the “Recommendation of the Council on Articial Intelligence, marking it as the rst clear and legislatively
regulated standard within the realm of articial intelligence” (Yeung, 2020). This recommendation was
endorsed by the Council upon the motion of the Committee for Digital Economy Policy. The document
emphasized the need for advancing and rening articial intelligence systems among member states of
the OECD. It stressed the signicance of considering human rights and fundamental freedoms to prevent
the misuse of AI (Anderljung and Hazell, 2023) as a tool by authorities or interest groups. A key directive of
this document pertained to the principles that should be incorporated into national laws to guide the creation
of responsible and condential AI systems. These principles encompassed notions of inclusive growth,
sustainable development, reaping the benets of articial intelligence through application in various areas
such as e-government, e-health and etc., upholding human values and principles, ensuring transparency
and comprehensibility, maintaining quality and safety in AI systems, and establishing accountability for
those who develop and implement such systems (Nguyen et al., 2022).
In the rapidly evolving landscape of e-government, AI has emerged as a transformative force,
reshaping the way public services are delivered and accessed (Al-Mushayt, 2019). E-government, which
refers to the use of digital technologies to enhance government operations and interactions with citizens,
has found a powerful ally in AI. One of the most notable applications of AI in e-government is in citizen
service delivery. Virtual assistants powered by AI (Chohan and Akhter, 2021) can provide real-time support
and information to citizens, offering personalized responses and guiding them through various government
processes. This not only reduces the burden on government call centers but also provides citizens with
faster and more convenient access to the information they need. AI-driven chatbots (Cantador et al.,
2021) can handle routine inquiries, freeing up human resources to focus on more complex tasks and
policy matters.
Moreover, AI’s data analysis capabilities are revolutionizing decision-making within government
agencies (Valle-Cruz, Gil-Garcia and Fernandez-Cortez, 2020). By sifting through vast amounts of
data from disparate sources, AI systems can identify patterns, trends, and insights that human analysts
might overlook. This data-driven approach enhances policy formulation, resource allocation, and public
service planning. For instance, AI can predict and prevent bottlenecks in public services, optimize trafc
management, and even assist in disaster response by analyzing real-time data from various sensors and
sources. However, the adoption of AI in e-government comes with challenges. Privacy and data security
are paramount concerns, as the processing of sensitive citizen data requires robust safeguards to prevent
misuse or breaches. Additionally, there is a need for upskilling government employees to understand,
manage, and collaborate effectively with AI systems. “Ensuring transparency and accountability in AI
decision-making processes is also crucial for building public trust in government AI applications” (Kim,
Park and Suh, 2020).
Nonetheless, the implementation of AI in e-government is not without challenges. Ensuring the
ethical use of AI (Al-Besher and Kumar, 2022), maintaining data privacy and security, and addressing
potential biases in AI algorithms are critical concerns. Governments must establish robust frameworks to
govern AI deployment (Al-Mushayt, 2019), encompassing transparency, accountability, and mechanisms
for addressing unintended consequences. From previously stated, it can be noted that there is numerous
opportunities for improvement of deployment of AI in the e-government domain. Not to forget ethical
considerations and privacy issues, which will further elaborated in next paragraphs.
One of the central ethical concerns in the deployment of AI in e-government is transparency
(AlShamsi et al., 2020). Governments have a responsibility to be transparent about the ways in which AI
is being utilized to make decisions that affect citizens’ lives. Citizens have the right to understand how AI
algorithms operate, how decisions are reached, and what data is being used to inform those decisions.
Transparent AI systems promote trust among citizens, as they can better comprehend the processes that
impact them and hold the government accountable for fair and unbiased outcomes. Equity and fairness
are also critical ethical dimensions of AI in e-government. Governments must be vigilant in ensuring
that AI systems do not perpetuate existing biases or discriminate against certain groups of citizens. If AI
algorithms are trained on biased or incomplete data, they may inadvertently amplify societal disparities.
Regular audits and assessments of AI systems for fairness and bias are essential to rectify and prevent
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Spalević, Ž. et al. (2023). Enhancing legally-based e-government services in education through articial intelligence,
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such issues.
Data privacy is another paramount ethical concern. E-government systems often involve the
collection and processing of citizens’ personal data (Shah, Wassan and Usmani, 2022). Governments
must uphold stringent data protection measures to prevent unauthorized access, use, or sharing of this
sensitive information. Citizens should have control over their data and be informed about how it is being
utilized within AI systems. Accountability is a fundamental principle that should be upheld in AI-driven
e-government (Vrabie, 2023). While AI systems can automate decision-making processes, governments
must retain oversight and responsibility for the outcomes. Clear lines of accountability should be
established to determine who is ultimately responsible for AI-related decisions and actions.
Legislation of AI and e-government
Legislation is increasingly aligning with the ongoing development of e-government to address the
complexities arising from the digital transformation of public services. These frameworks are essential for
establishing clear guidelines related to data protection, cybersecurity, and privacy, ensuring that citizens’
rights and government transparency are maintained in the digital era. They also play a pivotal role in
fostering public trust in e-government initiatives, as they provide a regulatory foundation for the secure
and responsible use of technology in the delivery of government services.
At the United Nations (UN) level, specically within the United Nations Institute for Research
on Crime and Justice (UNICRI), the Center for Articial Intelligence and Robotics was established in
2015 in the Netherlands, based in the Hague. The center’s focus lies in preventing crime and fostering
justice and security through the use of AI and robotics. A notable publication from this center is “Articial
Intelligence and Robotics for Law Enforcement” (UNICRI, 2020), which explores the potential applications
of these technologies in the realm of law enforcement (Raaijmakers, 2019). While articial intelligence
holds considerable potential for enhancing law enforcement processes, it also introduces various
risks to citizens’ rights and freedoms. It has the capacity to propagate misinformation and inaccurate
information, manipulate photos and video content, potentially undermining the legitimacy of evidence and
legal proceedings conducted by public authorities. To mitigate these risks, states are urged to allocate
additional resources for understanding articial intelligence through expertise-building processes (Liu,
Lin and Chen, 2019). Additionally, fostering international collaboration is vital during the development of
expert systems to counteract these challenges.
Proposal of the European Commission for the European Union’s regulatory framework on articial
intelligence represents the rst signicant step in the regulation of this technology in the EU. This proposal,
known as the EU regulatory framework on articial intelligence (AI) aims to establish clear rules and
standards for the use of AI in different sectors to ensure ethical, transparent and responsible application
of this technology (Veale and Zuiderveen Borgesius, 2021). The main importance of this proposal is given
on Table 1.
Table 1
EU regulatory framework on AI
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Spalević, Ž. et al. (2023). Enhancing legally-based e-government services in education through articial intelligence,
International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science, Engineering and Education (IJCRSEE), 11(3), 511-518.
This proposal showed the desire of the European Union towards responsible and ethical use of
articial intelligence, with a special focus on the protection of basic rights of citizens. However, during the
next two years, many abuses of use appeared in practice systems and AI tools (Buiten, 2019), which led
to the need to dene a restrictive legal solution regarding the use of articial intelligence.
The European Parliament adopted the Draft Law on Limiting Articial Intelligence on 16.6.2023. This
Law establishes norms that should ensure that articial intelligence tools are developed and/or used in
the EU in full compliance with EU rights and values. First of all, it is the same relating to the supervision of
people and objects, security, privacy, transparency, non-discrimination and socially responsible behavior
(Buiten, 2019). These standards aim to promote the denition and adoption of articial intelligence (AI).
Which is reliable and people-oriented, protecting health, safety, fundamental rights and democracy from
possible harmful effects and application of articial intelligence.
Conclusions
In this paper, our aim was to examine AI’s utilization within the e-government domain, particularly
in its alignment with open data, services, and various aspects such as transparency, collaboration,
participation, innovation, and legislation. AI’s aptitude for data analysis is leading a transformation in
decision-making processes within government agencies by uncovering patterns and insights from a
wide array of data sources, ultimately enhancing the formulation of policies, allocation of resources,
and the planning of public services. Through literature analysis on up to date research of e-government
services and answering to established research question, we try to provide recommendations for readers
which go towards harnessing of the AI for the prediction and prevention of service bottlenecks, aiding in
pattern recognition, and facilitating a deeper understanding of various socio-economic factors, thereby
strengthening accountability and automating decision-making processes.
Our review ndings conrm that AI is being employed to support various functions within
governance, with a primary emphasis on improving the delivery of public services. However, there
is a noticeable scarcity of AI’s application in policy modeling to assist in the development of effective
intervention strategies. Additionally, the implementation of legal regulations is imperative when employing
AI in government operations, with the objective of ensuring transparency and providing citizens with more
convenient and expedited access to essential information. Furthermore, there is a lack of a standardized
approach to AI’s application, especially in the context of education, where specialized training for AI
practitioners in government and other sectors is absent.
Conict of interests
The authors declare no conict of interest.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, P.M.; methodology, Z.S.; investigation, Z.S. and S.V; formal analysis, P.M and
S.V; writing—original draft preparation, P.M. and S.V.; writing—review and editing, P.M. and S.V. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
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